How to Pronounce /f/ and /v/

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Astronomers: Evidence Found of First Stars

  Astronomers have observed what they believe is the formation of the universe 13.6 billion years ago, when the earliest stars were just starting to shine. The astronomers say their observations may also have measured mysterious dark matter from that time. The observations however were not in visible light but in weak radio signals from deep space. An antenna in the Australian desert captured the radio signals. This receiver is a little bigger than a large television and costs less than $5 million. Because it records radio signals and not visible light, the antenna can detect objects that are more distant than the famous Hubble Space Telescope. Judd Bowman of Arizona State University helped to write the report which was published in the journal Nature. He says the signals came from the very first objects in the universe as it was coming out of darkness 180 million years after the Big Bang. Many scientists believe the universe began with a huge explosion they call the “Big Bang.” Stars and galaxies began to appear as the fireball of hydrogen and helium gas expanded and cooled. Signals believed to come from the earliest stars Richard Ellis is an astronomer who works at University College London. He says finding the signal from the first stars is more important than the Big Bang. Ellis said, “we are made of star stuff.” By identifying the first signs of stars, “we are seeing the beginnings of our existence,” he said. Ellis was not involved in the project. The astronomers studied the signals closely. They showed unexpectedly low temperatures and an unusually strong wave. When the astronomers tried to find out why, the best explanation they could find was that dark matter was present. If true, their observations would be the first confirmation of dark matter that does not depend on its gravitational effect. For many years, scientists have been looking for dark matter, which is believed to make up a large part of the universe’s mass. "If confirmed, this discovery deserves two Nobel Prizes" for both capturing the signal of the first stars and for possible dark matter confirmation, said Avi Loeb of Harvard University. He added that independent tests are needed to confirm the findings. Loeb, an astronomer, was not part of the study. Bowman agreed independent tests are needed. He told the AP his team spent two years confirming their findings. "It's a time of the universe we really don't know anything about," Bowman said. He said the discovery is "like the first sentence" in the early story of the history of the universe. However, the findings are nothing that astronomers could actually see. In fact, it is all based on differences in the wavelengths of radio signals. Scientists think the early universe was dark and cold, filled only with two gases: hydrogen and helium. Once stars formed, they released ultraviolet light into the dark areas between them. That ultraviolet light changed the energy signature of hydrogen atoms, Bowman said. Astronomers looked at a specific wavelength. If there were stars and ultraviolet light, they would see one signature. If there were no stars, they would see another. They saw a clear, but very weak signal, providing evidence of stars, probably many of them, Bowman said. Looking for a weak signal among loud radio "noise" Finding that first signal was not easy because the Milky Way alone produces radio wave noise 10,000 times louder, said Peter Kurczynski of the United States National Science Foundation. The government agency provided financial help for the study. Because the high end of the radio frequency is similar to that of FM radio signals, the astronomers had to go to Australia to escape interference. That was where they put up their antennas. They worked to confirm what they found, in part by testing it against signals produced in a laboratory. Bowman said it all showed that what they had found was evidence of the existence of the first stars. Scientists know little about these early stars. They were probably hotter and simpler than modern stars, Ellis and Bowman said. But now that astronomers know where and how to look, others will confirm this and learn more, Bowman noted. The research has yet to establish exactly when these stars turned on, except that they were shining 180 million years after the Big Bang. Scientists had come up with many different time periods for when the first stars began to shine, and 180 million years would be about right under the current theory, said Ellis. Rennan Barkana is an astrophysicist who has written about the findings. He said when the astronomers studied their results, they found that the hydrogen between stars was "even colder than the coldest we thought possible." The researchers expected temperatures to be 10 degrees above absolute zero. But they were 5 degrees above absolute zero, or minus 268 degrees Celsius. Barkana and others believe this may be caused by dark matter. If confirmed, the discovery could add a new important part to scientists’ thinking about the early universe. I’m Mario Ritter.   Susan Shand adapted this AP story for VOA Learning English. George Grow and Mario Ritter were the editors. ________________________________________________________________ Quiz Now, test your understanding by taking this short quiz. ________________________________________________________________ Words in This Story   dark matter – n. material yet to be observed by astronomers, but something they think exists in the universe because of observed gravitational effects antenna - n. a device for sending or receiving radio or television signals deserve – v. to have earned because of something wavelength – n. the distance from one wave of energy to another as it is traveling from point to point ultraviolet – n. used to describe light that cannot be seen and that has shorter wavelengths than violet light specific – adj. special; exactly stated frequency – n. the number of waves of sound or energy that pass by a point every second absolute zero – n. the temperature that is believed to be the lowest possible temperature signature – n. an identifying mark or quality

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What Does the US Supreme Court Say About Guns?

  The Second Amendment of the U.S. Constitution says: “A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.” What these words mean, exactly, is disputed in the United States. Even the Supreme Court, whose job it is to interpret the Constitution, has disagreed. The issue is whether the federal government can place restrictions on who owns guns and how people use them. In the Court’s 200-plus-year history, it has ruled on cases related to the Second Amendment several times – and its answer to what the Amendment means has recently changed. U.S. v. Cruikshank, 1876 The Second Amendment was adopted in 1791, along with the rest of the Bill of Rights. About 80 years later, an event prompted the Supreme Court to clarify it. A group of white supremacists in Louisiana attacked and killed more than 100 African American men. Later, the white supremacists were charged -- not with murder, but with violating the victims’ constitutional rights. In time, the Supreme Court heard the case. The lawyers’ arguments covered many issues. But in deciding the case, the justices said something important about the Second Amendment. They said the Constitution did not guarantee every person the right to have a gun. Instead, the justices agreed, state laws could regulate gun ownership, as long as citizens could form a militia if they needed to. The white supremacists won their case and were not punished. Presser v. Illinois, 1886; Miller v. Texas, 1894; U.S. v. Miller, 1939 In the next decades, the Supreme Court affirmed its earlier decision. It said the state of Illinois had the right to prevent ordinary citizens from carrying weapons in a parade. In another case, a man in Texas argued that his state law could not prevent him from carrying a hidden weapon. The Supreme Court said it could. And in the early 20th century, two men said the Second Amendment protected their right to bring an unregistered, sawed-off shotgun from one state to another. The justices disagreed. They said the “obvious purpose” of the Second Amendment was to support a state’s volunteer army, its militia. A sawed-off shotgun did not have a “reasonable relationship” to the militia, the justices said. And, as such, policies restricting the weapon were just fine.   District of Columbia v. Heller, 2008 More than 70 years passed. Then, in 2008, the Supreme Court ruled again on a gun-related case. And this time, its answer was very different. The case involved a man named Dick Heller. He lived in Washington, D.C., and was permitted to carry a gun at his job as a security guard. At the time, Washington, D.C., was considered very dangerous. Heller wanted to keep a handgun in his home for self-defense. District lawmakers said no. They pointed to a 1975 district law that banned most people from having handguns. Lawmakers said the goal of the law was to prevent an increase in gun violence. But Heller argued that the district’s ban on handguns violated his Second Amendment rights. This time, the Supreme Court agreed. Five out of nine justices said the Second Amendment said the Constitution did guarantee most people the right to have a gun, at least for protection in their homes. Guns did not have to be connected to a militia, after all. McDonald v. City of Chicago, 2010 Two years later, the Supreme Court ruled on a similar case. This time, a man argued that the city of Chicago could not prevent him from having a handgun. Five out of nine justices agreed with him, too. So what changed? The recent Supreme Court decisions show a major change in thinking about the Second Amendment. Gun ownership in the U.S. is now considered the individual right of each person, rather than the collective right of militias. And the Second Amendment now protects gun owners from many state and local laws that restrict gun ownership and use. Michael Trachtman is a lawyer and the author of a book about the Supreme Court. He points out that, over time, the Supreme Court has reversed decisions on a number of issues, including same-sex marriage and abortion. Trachtman says, “The history of the law is the evolution of the law.” He notes that over time, decisions the public accepted in the 1800s may not fit with ideas in the 20th or 21st century.    “Or there may simply be disagreements between justices today and justices five or 10 years ago,” Trachtman says. In the case of the Second Amendment, gun rights activists have also played an important part. Scholars Eric Ruben and Darrell Miller wrote in 2016 about the issue. They say that in the 1970s, researchers looked for historical sources supporting a different understanding of the Second Amendment. At the time, their ideas were not widely accepted. But eventually some other scholars adopted the view. And gun rights activists began challenging cases related to the Second Amendment in court.  In the early 2000s, activists focused some of their political efforts on the Heller case. The National Rifle Association – or NRA – especially organized supporters to explain to the Supreme Court justices why they should defend a constitutional right to gun ownership. The NRA’s efforts were combined with activism from libertarians – people who want to severely limit the role of government. Their arguments, along with some of the justices’ own understanding of the Constitution, helped change more than 130 years of legal history. I’m Kelly Jean Kelly. And I'm Bryan Lynn.   Kelly Jean Kelly wrote this story for VOA Learning English. Hai Do was the editor. We want to hear from you. Write to us in the Comments Section or on our Facebook page. ________________________________________________________________ Words in This Story   interpret - v. to explain or tell the meaning of prompt - v. to cause someone to do something clarify - v. to make something clearer white supremacist - n. a person who believes that the white race is better than all other races and should have control over all other races affirm - v. to decide that the judgment of another court is correct sawed-off - adj. with a short barrel obvious - adj. easy for the mind to understand or recognize evolution - n. a process of slow change and development

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Gun Sales Slump Since Trump’s Election

  Gun store owners say they are selling fewer guns since the 2016 presidential election. Some are calling the drop a “Trump slump.” Sales of guns slowed after Donald Trump was elected president, ending fears that a Democratic president would strengthen guns laws. That trend has continued in recent weeks. Lawmakers in Congress and some business leaders are discussing new gun laws after a gunman killed 17 people at a Florida high school on February 14. In past years, mass killings by gunmen have caused an increase in gun sales. Observers think this could be because people were worried about new government restrictions on gun ownership. But things are different after the deadly shooting at Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School in Parkland, Florida. “The day after the election, it’s just like somebody turned a faucet off,” said David Dobransky. The 67-year-old owns Dobransky Firearms, a small gun shop in North Canton, Ohio. Since the election, sales there have been cut in half. Nothing the president or Congress has done or said following the Florida shooting has helped business. Gun owners believe that Trump will not increase restrictions, gun show owners say. That is the case even with the conflicting messages Trump has sent about gun laws in recent weeks. Trump has described himself as a strong supporter of the National Rifle Association, or NRA. But, Trump criticized lawmakers last week for being too fearful of the gun rights group to take action. He also announced support for positions that the NRA opposes, such as banning gun sales to people under 21. Soon afterward, Trump met with NRA officials and tweeted they had a “Good (Great) meeting.” The NRA’s executive director, tweeting about the same meeting, said Trump and Vice President Mike Pence “don’t want gun control.”  At Rapid-Fire Firearms in Rapid City, South Dakota, business is “just like normal,” said owner Robert Akers.  He said there was no panic buying that seemed to take place under President Barack Obama. American Outdoor Brands says its sales are down. The company, which owns gun maker Smith & Wesson, told investors in a conference call recently that revenue fell by one-third over the past three months. That amount is similar to the overall drop since Trump was elected, the Associated Press reports. Stock prices for gun sellers Sturm Ruger and American Outdoor Brands also have fallen since Trump was elected. The companies have mostly reported poor sales in recent months. Four large retailers announced new restrictions on their gun sales last week. Kroger, Dick’s Sporting Goods, L.L. Bean and Walmart said that they will no longer sell guns to anyone under the age of 21. Also, outdoor retailer REI says it is ending future orders of some popular product brands. The company says it is doing so because the parent company that makes the brands also makes assault-style rifles. Over the past 30 years, U.S. gun production has tripled. Nine million guns were produced in 2015, compared with 3 million in 1986. Those numbers come from the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, a government agency. The U.S. also imports millions of guns every year. At Duke’s Sport Shop in New Castle, Pennsylvania, gun sales have risen in recent days. But store owner Wes Morosky said that is because of yearly tax refund checks. The family-owned business started by Morosky’s father, Duke, has about 2,000 firearms available at any one time, including the AR-15. That is the assault-style rifle used in the Florida shooting. It is the subject of a new debate about a gun bans. Morosky said the store had a hard time keeping the guns in stock after deadly shooting at Sandy Hook Elementary School at in Newtown, Connecticut in 2012. He said there were fears that the Obama administration would ban assault rifles. “Generally, people are still comfortable with the government that’s intact right now,” Morosky said. I'm Jonathan Evans. And I'm Susan Shand.   Susan Shand adapted this story for Learning English based on a story by the Associated Press. Mario Ritter was the editor. Write to us in the Comments Section or on our Facebook page. _______________________________________________________________ Words in This Story   Slump – n.  a sudden decrease in prices, value, amount, etc. Trend – n.  a general direction of change Faucet – n. a device that is used to control the flow of water from a pipe Panic – n.  a state or feeling of extreme fear that makes someone unable to act or think normally Revenue – n. money that is made by or paid to a business or an organization Retailer – n. a person or business that sells things directly to customers for their own use Assault-style rifle – n. an automatic or semi-automatic gun

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Sick Venezuelans Flee to Colombia as Refugee Crisis Worsens

  In a hospital near Colombia’s border with Venezuela, migrants fill beds with the wounds of the nation they left behind. An 18-year-old woman rubbed her stomach. She fled Venezuela with her new born daughter when the wounds she suffered while giving birth became infected. A young man hurt in a motorcycle crash needed antibiotic drugs for an infection. A retiree with an enlarged foot arrived at the hospital after taking a 20-hour bus ride from Caracas. He went there because Venezuelan doctors told his family he needed the foot cut off — without antibiotics or drugs to control pain during the operation. "If you want to sign, sign. But we are not responsible for the life of your father," said Teresa Tobar. She was repeating what the doctors told her when they handed over the papers for her father's operation. As Venezuela's economic crisis worsens, rising numbers of people are fleeing overseas. Independent groups say as many as 3 million to 4 million Venezuelans have left their homeland in recent years. Several hundred thousand reportedly left in 2017 alone. Many of those are arriving in Colombia by foot and going to emergency rooms there with medical conditions that Venezuelan hospitals can no longer treat. Health officials say Venezuelans made nearly 25,000 visits to Colombian emergency rooms last year, up from just 1,500 in 2015. At hospitals in border cities like Cucuta, patients lay side by side on stretchers, not much unlike the conditions they fled back home. Officials predict the number of Venezuelans being treated at Colombian hospitals could double in 2018. They say the nation's public health system cannot help the large number of refugees. Colombia cannot pay the cost of medical treatment for everyone arriving, said Julio Saenz, an adviser on migrant affairs to Colombia's Health Ministry. “It’s “a very big concern," he added. The Venezuelans are fleeing a national government that has been unable to stop rising costs. The high rate of inflation makes Venezuelan money nearly worthless and forces millions to go hungry. Migrants say the country’s collapsing health system is also forcing them to leave as things like antibiotics become hard to find or too pricey. "I said to myself, 'I have nowhere else to go,'" noted Grecia Sabala, a 32-year-old mother. She went to Colombia for treatment for cancer because doctors in Venezuela were unable to offer any treatment. Venezuelan President Nicolas Maduro has refused to accept humanitarian aid. Maduro denies there is a crisis in the country. He added that permitting international aid could lead to foreign intervention. Yet what little information officials have released shows Venezuelans are facing problems. The numbers of babies and mothers dying have risen sharply. And diseases like diphtheria, which officials thought was no longer a health threat, have reappeared. Health officials are especially concerned about the spread of infectious diseases. Colombian doctors confirmed numerous cases of malaria, tuberculosis and HIV among Venezuelan migrants last year. "It's increasing the numbers of some illnesses that we had under control," Saenz said. By law, Colombia's hospitals are required to treat any person, local or foreign, who shows up at an emergency room. But many Venezuelans are arriving with conditions like cancer, which requires costly, continuing care. Health centers in Colombia are not required to provide those treatments. Hospitals offer “emergency room care, but beyond that there is no more we can do," said Juan Ramirez, director of Cucuta’s Erasmo Meoz Hospital. Cucuta health officials estimate the cost of caring for Venezuelan migrants will be millions of dollars this year. Most of that money comes from local agencies, many of which are low on financial resources. Health officials say they need the help of the central government and international community. Aside from providing health care, border cities are also seeing a rise in the sex trade and groups of men, women and children sleeping on the streets. President Juan Manuel Santos is being pressured to declare an emergency, which would free up additional money. The United States’ Agency for International Development recently sent its top official for Latin America to Cucuta. The aim of the fact-finding trip was to see how the U.S. can help Colombia with the growing crisis. The Colombian health ministry is planning to send six mobile medical centers to the border area to treat minor conditions. A Colombia Red Cross medical station already operates at the foot of the Simon Bolivar International Bridge, where about 35,000 Venezuelans enter the country each day. The Red Cross station treats several hundred Venezuelans every week. Michel Briceno, the young new mother who fled to Colombia after giving birth, said she knew she had to leave Venezuela. She said she made the decision after learning that several other women at the Venezuelan hospital had gotten sick and died. When she saw the infection, she and her husband, their young son and newborn daughter took a small bus for a 12-hour ride into Colombia. She felt terrible pain during the ride. Briceno said if she had stayed in Venezuela “I would have died.” I'm Susan Shand. And I'm Dorothy Gundy.   Christine Armario reported this story for the Associated Press. Susan Shand adapted her report for VOA Learning English. The editor was George Grow. ____________________________________________________________ Words in This Story   migrant – n. a person who goes from one area to another especially to find work illness – n. a health problem, sickness mobile – adj. able to move from one place to another  

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Study: Rich Cities Largely Responsible for Greenhouse Gases

  Rich cities around the world are largely responsible for greenhouse gas emissions, says a new study. The study measures emissions based on the use of goods and services, such as food, clothing and electronics, by people living inside cities. It includes the impact of trade of such goods between points of production and use. This is a change from traditional measures, which look at emissions from production of goods. When measuring these gases based on consumption, rather than manufacturing, the biggest emitters are mainly cities in North America and Europe. The study found their emissions were 60 percent higher than currently estimated. Researchers shared this information this month at a United Nations climate conference in Edmonton, a city in Alberta, Canada. About 750 city leaders, university researchers and scientists from 80 countries took part. They discussed the latest climate research and what local governments can do to fight climate change. Attendee Mark Watts is the head of C40, the organization that did the study. C40 is an alliance of more than 90 cities working to fight climate change. The study examined 79 cities that are part of the alliance. Watts said this newer method offers a fuller picture of greenhouse gas emissions by linking them to consumers rather than manufacturers. The new estimates put the responsibility on richer consumers and “increase(s) the scope of things that policy makers in cities” can do to lower emissions, he said. Cities use more than two-thirds of the world’s energy. Big cities, big problem The new estimate comes at a time when there is concern that national governments will not meet the climate promises they made in 2015 in Paris. Traditionally researchers have considered manufacturing countries such as China and India among the top emitters of greenhouse gases. This study shows that the demand for and use of the products of such manufacturers is part of the overall process of greenhouse gas emissions. Debra Roberts is one of the heads of the United Nation’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. She said that using consumption-based measures was “revolutionary.” “But ... these are ideas whose time is probably almost imminent,” she told the Thomson Reuters Foundation during the conference. I'm Alice Bryant.    Sebastien Malo reported this story for Reuters. Alice Bryant adapted it for Learning English. Caty Weaver was the editor. _________________________________________________________________ Words in This Story   greenhouse gas – n. n. a group of gases that trap heat and are linked to increased temperatures in the atmosphere, including carbon dioxide and methane emission – n. n. the act of producing or sending out something (such as energy or gas) from a source​ consumption – n. the use of something scope – n. the area that is included in or dealt with by something imminent – adj. happening very soon  

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Everyday Grammar: Em Dash, Em Dash

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Lesson 22: Trash to Treasure, Part 2

Summary Sue tries to teach Anna how to turn trash into treasure. But Anna doesn't seem to know what treasure is. And she makes a big mess.   Conversation Sue: Welcome to class, Anna. I can’t wait to see your trash! Sue: Oh, okay. Alright, it’s a -- it’s a net with a … oh, it’s got a hole in it. Tell me about that. Anna: This net said to me, “Anna, I used to catch stuff. I don’t anymore. So, use me, Anna.” That’s what it said. It said, “Use me, Anna.” Sue: Okay. So...it’s a plastic helmet. Anna: This plastic helmet said, “Anna. Hey, Anna, find me a head.” Sue: Okay, um...and a broken toy. Anna: This broken toy … this broken toy said to me – it said, “Anna, help me find fun.” “Help me, Anna” is what it said. Sue: Anna, this stuff is not saying anything to you or me or anyone. It’s what we like to call in the business … garbage. Anna: But you said to bring in trash. Sue: Sometimes trash is treasure. Sometimes it's just trash. Sue: Anna, don’t worry. Next week, I could teach you decoupage. Anna: Decoupage. Decoupage. That’s fun to say. Sue: All you need to bring is a clean shoe box. A box that held shoes.   Anna: I got it. I got it! See you next week! Prof. Bot: Ut oh. It looks like Anna doesn’t know the difference between treasure and trash. She thinks those things are telling her something! Prof. Bot: The words tell and say have similar meanings. But we use them in different ways. Prof Bot: Tell means “to inform or instruct someone with words” and is almost always followed by an indirect object. For example, Sue says, “Tell me about that.” Prof. Bot: The word me is the indirect object and tells us who is being told. Prof. Bot: Say means “to express something with words” and focuses more on the words used. For example, Anna says, “That’s what it said. It said, ‘Use me, Anna.’” Prof. Bot: Listen for when Anna and Sue use tell and say. Sue: Anna, welcome to Decoupage class. Decoupage is just gluing pretty pictures onto stuff. (Sue gets a phone call.) Sue: Anna, I’ve got to talk to this person. I’ll be right back. Don’t start without me. Anna: Got it. (Sue leaves to take her phone call. Anna gets glue everywhere. She becomes covered with glue and paper.) Anna: Okay. I can fix this. Sue: Anna, what happened? I told you to wait for me! Anna: Actually, you told me not to start without you, which I didn’t. Your glue is really sticky. Sue: Next week, let’s try lamp making. There’s – there’s no glue. Here's a flier.   Anna: Thanks. See you next week. Sue: Anna, you did really well this week. I think lamp making might be your thing! Anna: Thanks, Sue. I did everything you told me to do. Sue: Remember: I said to read the instructions really carefully. Where are those instructions? Anna: Let’s just plug it in! (Anna plugs in the lamp and, suddenly, the city loses electricity.) Anna: So, what class will you be teaching next week? Prof. Bot: Too bad Anna didn’t follow instructions! Visit our website for more on tell and say!   New Words actually – adv. used to stress that a statement is true especially when it differs in some way from what might have been thought or expected command – n. an order given to a person to do something decoupage – n. the art of decorating an object by gluing pictures onto it electricity – n. a form of energy that is carried through wires and is used to operate machines, lights, etc. flier – n. a piece of paper that has something printed on it, such as an advertisement focus – v. to direct your attention or effort at something specific garbage – n. things that are no longer useful or wanted and that have been thrown out  glue – n.  substance used to stick things tightly together helmet – n.  a hard hat that is worn to protect your head hole - n. an opening in or through something  net – n. a device that is used for catching or holding things or  paper – n. the material that is used in the form of thin sheets for writing or printing on, wrapping things, etc. picture – n. a painting, drawing, or photograph of someone or something plastic – n. a light, strong substance that can be made into different shapes and that is used for making many common products plug – n. a part at the end of an electric cord that has two or three metal pins that connect the cord to a source of electricity sticky – adj. covered in a substance that things stick to stuff – n. materials, supplies, or equipment thing – n. an object whose name is not known or stated   Practice Now, you try it! First, read more about tell and say below. Then, practice using those words in the Comments section. Write about what happens in Lesson 22! You can find some examples below. Try making at least one sentence with tell and one with say.    Tell | Say Tell means “to inform or instruct someone with words.” We use an indirect object (personal pronoun) with tell to say who is receiving the information. Tell is only used without an indirect object in a few expressions, such as: tell the time, tell the difference and tell the truth. When we report a command or instruction, we usually also use the verb tell. When we do this, we use an infinitive verb after the indirect object.  Command (in Direct Speech) Reported Speech “Read the instructions carefully.” She told Anna to read the instructions carefully. Use tell: In reported speech Sometimes in direct speech* With a personal pronoun Examples: Sue told Anna that she liked her lamp. She told her to read the instructions carefully. Anna told her that the broken toys wanted help. Sue told me, “So…it’s a plastic helmet.” (wrong) Say means "to express something with words." When we use say, we do not focus on who is receiving the information. So, we do not use an indirect object (personal pronoun). Use say: In direct speech In reported speech Without a personal pronoun Examples: Anna said the glue was very sticky. Sue said that she had to take a call. She said, “Don’t start without me.” Anna said me, “Got it.” (wrong)   When to Use Tell Say In reported speech Yes Yes In direct speech Less common Yes With an indirect object Yes No   *The verb Tell is sometimes used with direct speech, but this is less common than say. However, it can be common in some types of writing, such as in news reports.   Test Yourself How well do you know the grammar from Level 2? Test yourself! In Lesson 22, you will see examples of reported speech and other grammar that you have learned in Level 2. Look for sentences in Lesson 22 with: Reported speech Past habitual  Prepositions Passive voice Then, write those sentences in the Comments section. For example: But you said to bring in trash (reported speech).   Listening Quiz See how well you understand this lesson by taking a listening quiz. Play each short video, then choose the best answer.​ ​Free Materials Download the VOA Learning English Word Book for a dictionary of the words we use on this website. For Teachers Send us an email if you have comments on this course or questions. Grammar focus: Tell and say Topics: Making mistakes; Failing and moving on   Comments Let us know what you think about this lesson. Send us an email or write to us in the Comments section below or on our Facebook page.

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US Universities Won't Punish Students for Protesting Gun Violence

  American universities across the country are publicly supporting high school students who participate in peaceful protests against gun violence. University admissions officials have posted on official websites and the social media service Twitter. The announcements are aimed at students who are applying for colleges and universities. They say students who are suspended for protesting gun violence will not be punished in the application process. The statements come in response to a national discussion about how to fix the problem of gun violence in American schools. Supporting the right to protest On February 14, Nikolas Cruz shot and killed 17 people at his former high school in Parkland, Florida. Since then, high school-age activists have created a national movement calling on politicians to find a solution to gun violence.  The students have organized many peaceful protests, including a call for a national school walkout on March 14.  A march in Washington D.C, called March for Our Lives, is also planned for later in the month. People participating in the events are demanding that U.S. lawmakers in Congress make changes to the country’s gun policies. However, officials at some high schools have threatened to punish students if they protest during school hours. For example, an official at the Needville Independent School District in Texas spoke about the issue last week. Curtis Rhodes sent a letter to families and wrote on the school’s website. Rhodes said students who take part in protests during school hours will be suspended. That is, the students will not be permitted to return to school for several days, and they will not receive credit for any tests or work they missed during that time. Rhodes was firm about the rule. He said the district would suspend high school students who protested during school hours “no matter if it is one, fifty, or five hundred students involved." He added that parents who approved the students’ absences from school would not change the rule. Representing university values A suspension is a serious punishment in American high schools. It can hurt a student’s chances of being accepted into a college or university. A high school counselor in the state of Washington, David Quinn, was concerned about how the suspensions would affect applicants. So he spoke admissions representatives from three schools: DePaul University in Chicago, Trinity University in Washington, and Smith College in Massachusetts. The educators wanted to create a social media movement supporting students’ right to protest. They posted their support on Twitter.    The movement quickly grew. Now, more than 200 American universities have made public statements promising not to punish students in the college application process for any peaceful protest-related suspensions. Hanna Hendlowitz is the senior assistant director of admissions for Yale University. She posted on the school website: “We value student voices on campus and we encourage discourse and action. To punish our applicants for doing just that would go against the very beliefs that make Yale such a special place to study.” Stu Schmill is the dean of admissions for the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, or MIT. He posted on the school’s website: “We have long held that students should not make decisions based on what they think will get them into college, but instead based on values and interests that are important to them… We believe that civic responsibility is something that is learned best by doing.” University of California San Diego student Alex Garcia created the website http://ift.tt/2FrnUSF to list the U.S. universities that have made official statements supporting students’ right to protest. Moving society forward Angel B. Perez is the vice president of enrollment and student success at Trinity University in Washington, DC. He told VOA he wasn’t trying to make a political statement or to “choose a side” in the gun debate. Instead, he was supporting students participating in protests as a way to learn and express their ideas. “It was a representation of our values, what it is that we care about. We want students who stand up for what they believe in, who take controversial views and perspectives… that’s something we would admire in the college admissions process.” Perez also said peaceful protests are important to American society. Right now, Perez said, people are not “constructively disagreeing with each other.”  He says speaking out on social media and holding debates can move society forward on difficult issues. “Part of what we’re trying to teach them in higher education is to mobilize and stand up for the issues that you believe in, but also learn to listen to the other side.  If you are saying to students at the high school level that we are going to punish you for trying to do these things, that actually really disrupts the education process that we are trying to engage in, in higher education.” Other universities that have publicly supported high school students engaging in peaceful protests include Harvard, University of Virginia, Cornell, and Stanford. I'm Alice Bryant And I’m Phil Dierking.   Phil Dierking reported this story for VOA Learning English. Kelly Jean Kelly was the editor. Do you think high school students should or should not be able to participate in protests during school hours for issues they believe in?  We want to hear from you. Write to us in the Comments Section or on our Facebook page. ________________________________________________________________ Quiz Now, test your understanding by taking this short quiz. ​ _______________________________________________________________ Words in This Story   admire - v.  to feel respect or approval for​ application - n.  a formal and usually written request for something (such as a job, admission to a school, a loan, etc.)​ constructive - adj. helping to develop or improve something​ controversial - adj.  relating to or causing much discussion, disagreement, or argument​ discourse - n. the use of words to exchange thoughts and ideas​ disrupt - v.  to cause (something) to be unable to continue in the normal way​ encourage - v. to make (someone) more determined, hopeful, or confident​ engage - v. to get and keep (someone's attention, interest, etc.)​ perspective - n. a way of thinking about and understanding something (such as a particular issue or life in general)​ mobilize - v. to bring (people) together for action​

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Ways We Sleep Zzzzzz

  Now, it’s time for Words and Their Stories, a program from VOA Learning English that explores common expressions we use every day. Sleep. It’s important to our mental and physical health. From a quick cat nap to long, deep beauty sleep, we have many expressions to describe sleep. Of course, cats sleep for many hours during the day. That’s why we call a short period of sleep – preferably in a warm spot of the room – a cat nap. The purpose of a cat nap is different from that of a power nap. We take power naps during the middle of a workday to help us get more work done. But we take a cat nap because the sun feels so good and our pillow feels so soft that we simply must close our eyes for a few minutes – like a cat. If you had a really tough week at work, you might want to sleep in on the weekend. This means you sleep later than usual. Teenagers are especially known for sleeping in when they don't have school. It’s not hard to understand where we get some of our sleep expressions. For example, when we’re tired, we may say we need to get some shut-eye. You can only sleep when you shut your eyes. Although, I have heard stories about people who sleep with their eyes open – which can look kind of creepy. When we use this expression, please note that it is singular. We just say “shut-eye” and not “shut-eyes.” If you are feeling tired, you might need to catch some z’s. “Z” is the sound we use to represent sleeping. So, to catch some z’s simply means to sleep.   Now, sometimes we fall asleep when we don’t mean to. We might nod off while sitting somewhere and waiting, like in a doctor’s office or on the train after a long day of work. A “nod” is the up and down movement of the head. That head movement is what happens when you nod off while sitting. Your head drops down and … you fall … asleep. Now, we might take a short snooze during the day to get a little rest. And if we had a late night, we might need to hit the snooze alarm or snooze button a couple of times before actually getting up. This lets us get a little more shut-eye. Most of these expressions are for the short rests we take during the day -- but not when we actually go to bed at night. We have a whole different set of other expressions just for that! You can simply turn in. This just means to go to bed for the night. When you fold down the blankets to get into bed, you are “turning down the bed.” Some people are just too tired to fuss with turning down blankets. They might say, “It’s late. I’m going to crash.” This means they are so tired that they feel like they need to fall -- or crash -- onto the bed. Young people are fond of this expression. If you hit the sack or hit the hay you are officially going to bed for the night. A sack is a big bag, like the bag that rice comes in. Word historians say that in earlier days, people would fill empty rice sacks with something soft, like feathers, and make it a pillow. And hay is the kind of dried grass that farmers put down for some farm animals to sleep on. It's actually quite comfortable. In fact, a long time ago, some beds were filled with hay. Maybe you are one of those lucky people who drift off to sleep quickly. As soon as your head hits the pillow, you are out like a light. This means you fell asleep in the time it takes to turn off the light. For some other people, sleep might not come so fast. Some people might need to listen to peaceful music or read a book to help them fall asleep. Others might need to count sheep. When you count sheep, you imagine cute little sheep jumping over a fence. The scene is so relaxing -- and counting sheep is so boring -- that will you soon be sawing logs. That is to say, you are so deeply asleep that you will start snoring loudly. Some people may fall asleep quickly, but then they have a restless night’s sleep. They toss and turn all night. And what about those times when you can’t seem to fall sleep at all? For those nights you can say, “I didn’t sleep a wink!” Now, a couple of expressions with the word “sleep” aren’t actually about sleep at all. Sometimes when we have something on our mind that is important to us, we might think about it as we’re falling asleep. It might keep us awake.  On the other hand, if there is an issue that you simply don’t care about at all, you can say that you are not going to lose any sleep over it. We often use this to answer something said to us. Here’s an example: A: Wow. Curtis is really mad at you. He said he’s not going to forget what you did at the party last night.  B: I didn’t do anything. And anyway, Curtis is all talk. Trust me. I’m not going to lose any sleep over his empty threats.   Now, if you want someone to spend more time thinking about something, you can tell them to sleep on it. We usually say this when someone has to make a decision. Let’s hear how to use this expression. In this short conversation, one person wants to get away for some R&R, also known as “rest and relaxation.” The other doesn’t feel so free. A: Okay, so here’s the plan. If we leave straight from work on Friday and drive to the cabin, we should get there by 11. That gives us all day Saturday, Sunday and Monday to ski or hike in the mountains. We can head home Monday night. B: I’m not sure if I can miss work on Monday. A: But it’s a holiday. Don’t you need some R&R? B: I do. But I also need to work on a big project. I think I’ll actually feel more rested and relaxed if I work on it.   A: Look, you don’t have to make up your mind right now. Sleep on it and let me know by Thursday if you can go.   And that brings us to the end of this Words and Their Stories. This is Anna Matteo hoping that tonight you sleep like a log! And as we like to say to our children: “Sleep tight. Don’t let the bed bugs bite!” In the Comments Section, please share some of your sleep expressions.   Anna Matteo wrote this story for VOA Learning English. Ashley Thompson was the editor. _____________________________________________________________ Words in This Story   pillow – n. a bag filled with soft material that is used as a cushion usually for the head of a person who is lying down fold – v. to bend one part of something over or against another part blanket – n. a covering made of cloth that is used especially on a bed to keep you warm fuss – v. activity or excitement that is unusual and that often is not wanted or necessary drift – v. to change slowly from one state or condition to another : “drift off to sleep” relaxing – adj. helping you to rest and to feel less tense, worried, nervous, etc. snore – v. to breathe noisily while sleeping restless – adj. having little or no rest or sleep all talk - idiom talking about doing things but never actually doing them empty threat – n. a threat that someone does not really mean

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Nepalese Monks Compete in Long-Distance Races

  Seven Buddhist religious workers from the village of Sindhukot in Nepal are trading in their robes for running shoes. They want to become ultra-marathon runners. They hope that by running in long distance races they can help provide money to rebuild homes destroyed by a deadly earthquake in 2015. The monks train by running across the hills around their village in the Himalayas. Most of them are in their early twenties. They follow a firm training plan each day. The monks pray in the morning before going into the hills to run up to 40 kilometers each afternoon. Twenty-one-year-old Man Bahadur Lama is the fastest runner of the group. He said, "We found out that we can get many opportunities through running and hope to do something from our monk team — make a name for our village and bring development here. That is why we are running." Life is difficult in Sindhukot. The village is about 80 kilometers from Nepal’s capital Kathmandu. But, like many rural communities in Nepal, it feels completely disconnected from the rest of the world. The closest school is a two-hour walk and the only shops are in a nearby village. Many Buddhist families in Nepal send at least one son to join the local monastery. There, the boys are usually fed, clothed and educated. This provides financial help for their parents. Lama was sent away when he was only eight years old. But he currently lives at home because the village monastery was destroyed in the 2015 earthquake. Fellow monk Mingma Lama said his duties as a monk in the community have prepared him for running long distances. "Every day we go up and down the hills. We often have to walk far... So running wasn't too hard for us," he said. These Himalayan monks are not the first to take up running. The so-called "marathon monks" of Mount Hiei in Japan are known for running 1,000 marathons in 1,000 days. But they are seeking enlightenment, not prize money. 'Even monks can run' Mingma Gyalbo is a member of the monastery who also organizes races nearby. He told the AFP news service that the monks are talented but need more support to become better. He said they lack technical skills, like knowing the best foods to eat and they need good running shoes. Trail running and ultra-marathons are gaining popularity in Nepal. The environment surrounding the Himalayas is well-suited for extreme tests of human endurance. Nepal now hosts several races each year, including the world's highest marathon that starts at an altitude of 5,364 meters. A few Nepalese runners have found success internationally. One of them is Mira Rai. She won the 52 kilometer Ben Nevis Ultra in Scotland in 2017. She was also named the National Geographic Adventurer of the Year in 2017. The Sindhukot monks' first race was a 30 kilometer trail run in a nearby village in 2016. But they have yet to win any medals. Man Bahadur Lama finished tenth in their first major marathon earlier this month. He missed out on winning the top prize of 100,000 rupees, or $964.  That amount is more than the average yearly income in Nepal. Shekhar Pandey was the race organizer. He said, "I was quite amazed when I first learned that these monks were running. They are very self-motivated and hardworking, they are training by themselves. They are very young and if they train well, they have good potential." One of the monks, Chuldim Sampo, said the group is excited. He added, "We want to show people that even monks are capable of running." I’m Jonathan Evans.   This story was first reported by the AFP. Jonathan Evans adapted it for Learning English. Mario Ritter was the editor. ________________________________________________________________ Words in this Story   endurance – n.  the ability to do something difficult for a long time enlightenment – n. a final spiritual state marked by the absence of desire or suffering marathon – n. a running race that is about 42 kilometers long monastery – n. a place where monks live and work together monks – n. members of a religious community of men who usually promise to remain poor, unmarried, and separated from the rest of society talented – adj. having a special ability to do something well; having talent potential – n. an ability that someone has that can be developed to help that person become successful

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